PFAS are often described as “forever chemicals” because many of them resist heat, oil, water and biological breakdown. That durability has made PFAS useful in manufacturing and consumer products—but it also means they can persist in the environment long after the original product has been discarded.
PFAS is short for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, a large family of thousands of synthetic chemicals. They are not a single substance, and different PFAS can behave differently in the body and the environment. Some have been phased out or heavily restricted, while others are still used in specialised applications.
So where might people encounter them? The answer is not limited to one product or one industry. PFAS can be found in everyday items, industrial sites, household dust, food packaging and, in some locations, drinking water.
Why are PFAS used in so many products?
The chemical structure of PFAS gives them unusual properties. They can repel water and oil, withstand high temperatures and reduce friction. These characteristics are valuable in products designed to resist stains, grease or heat.
That same stability creates an environmental challenge. PFAS can move through soil and water, remain in rivers and groundwater for long periods, and accumulate in people and wildlife. Some PFAS can also travel considerable distances from their original source.
It is important to remember that the presence of PFAS in a product does not automatically mean that significant exposure will occur. Risk depends on the specific chemical, the amount present, how a person encounters it, how often that contact occurs and how the substance behaves in the body.
Common everyday sources of PFAS
Many potential sources are linked to products that are designed to be non-stick, waterproof, stain-resistant or grease-resistant. The following examples are among the most frequently discussed.
Non-stick cookware
Some non-stick cookware has historically been manufactured using PFAS, particularly compounds associated with fluoropolymer coatings. Modern products may use different formulations, and a finished, intact coating is not the same as exposure to a raw PFAS chemical.
However, damaged, peeling or severely overheated cookware should be replaced. Avoiding extreme overheating is sensible for any coated pan, and following the manufacturer’s instructions can help preserve the surface.
It is also worth distinguishing between PFAS used in the production of a coating and the finished coating itself. These are not necessarily the same exposure scenario, which is why broad claims that every non-stick pan releases dangerous levels of PFAS are not scientifically reliable.
Waterproof and stain-resistant clothing
Outdoor jackets, walking trousers, shoes and technical textiles may be treated to repel rain or stains. Some older or specialist products have used PFAS-based durable water-repellent treatments.
Manufacturers are increasingly developing PFAS-free alternatives, but labelling is not always consistent. Terms such as “PFC-free” or “fluorine-free” may provide useful information, although consumers should check the product’s technical details when possible.
Washing and disposal can also matter environmentally. Chemicals released from treated textiles may enter wastewater, while discarded products can contribute to long-term contamination if they are sent to landfill or incinerated under unsuitable conditions.
Food packaging and takeaway containers
PFAS have been used in some grease-resistant food contact materials, including paper wrappers, fast-food packaging, microwave popcorn bags and bakery papers. Their purpose is to stop oils from soaking through the packaging.
Food packaging regulations differ between countries, and many uses have been restricted or phased out. Nevertheless, older stock, imported products and specialised packaging may not follow the same rules. Recycling can also be complicated when paper or board has been treated with persistent chemicals.
Reducing frequent contact with grease-resistant packaging is a practical precaution. Where possible, choose fresh food served on untreated plates or use reusable containers made from suitable materials.
Cosmetics and personal care products
Some cosmetics may contain fluorinated ingredients intended to improve spreadability, durability, water resistance or texture. PFAS have been reported in certain foundations, mascaras, lip products and other long-wear formulations.
Ingredient names can be difficult to recognise. Terms containing “fluoro”, “perfluoro” or “polyfluoro” may indicate a fluorinated compound, although not every ingredient with similar wording is necessarily a PFAS under every regulatory definition.
Consumers who want to limit potential exposure can look for products that disclose complete ingredients and avoid claims such as “waterproof” or “long-lasting” when those features are not needed. This is not a reason to discard every cosmetic product in a bathroom cabinet; it is a reminder to treat product information critically.
Household dust and treated surfaces
PFAS-containing materials can contribute to household dust as products age or wear. Carpets, upholstery, furniture treatments, floor finishes and stain-resistant fabrics may all be relevant, particularly in buildings containing older furnishings.
Dust exposure is more significant for young children, who spend more time close to the floor and frequently put their hands in their mouths. Regular vacuuming with a well-maintained machine, damp dusting and handwashing before meals can reduce contact with contaminated dust.
These steps will not remove PFAS from a home completely, but they can reduce exposure to a mixture of household contaminants. A clean-up strategy does not need to become a full-time occupation—fortunately, the dust will not be impressed by dramatic gestures.
PFAS in food and the wider food chain
Food can become contaminated when PFAS enter soil, irrigation water, livestock feed or food-processing equipment. Fish and shellfish caught in contaminated waters may contain PFAS, particularly when they live near industrial discharges, firefighting training areas or wastewater outlets.
Studies have also detected PFAS in meat, dairy products, eggs and crops in areas affected by contaminated soil or water. The level of contamination varies considerably. Local environmental conditions, the specific PFAS and the food involved all influence the result.
Regulatory agencies monitor food where there is evidence of a potential problem. People who catch their own fish should check local consumption advisories, especially if fishing in rivers or lakes near airports, industrial facilities, military sites, waste sites or known contamination zones.
How PFAS enter drinking water
Drinking water is one of the most important potential exposure pathways because contaminated water can be consumed every day over many years. PFAS can enter water supplies through several routes:
- Industrial facilities that manufacture or use fluorinated chemicals
- Landfill leachate and waste disposal sites
- Firefighting training areas and airports
- Military bases and emergency response locations
- Wastewater treatment works receiving industrial or domestic discharges
- Contaminated soil and groundwater moving into rivers, reservoirs or boreholes
- Use of aqueous film-forming foams, known as AFFF, during firefighting or training
AFFF has been particularly important in the history of PFAS contamination. These foams were designed to extinguish fuel fires quickly and were widely used at airports, refineries, military facilities and industrial sites. When released into the ground, PFAS can migrate into groundwater and remain there for decades.
Water treatment can reduce some PFAS, but conventional processes are not equally effective against every compound. Activated carbon, ion exchange resins and high-pressure membrane systems such as reverse osmosis can remove certain PFAS when properly designed and maintained.
Boiling water does not remove PFAS. In fact, boiling can slightly concentrate non-volatile contaminants as water evaporates. A standard jug filter should not be assumed to remove PFAS unless the manufacturer provides independent performance data for specific compounds and conditions.
Is tap water always the main source?
Not necessarily. Exposure is influenced by location, diet, occupation, consumer products and household conditions. For someone living near a contaminated groundwater plume, drinking water may be a significant source. For another person, exposure may be more strongly influenced by food, workplace contact or dust.
Public water supplies are monitored and regulated, but monitoring requirements vary by country and may change as scientific knowledge develops. In the United Kingdom, water companies and regulators assess chemical risks through drinking water standards and surveillance programmes. Private water supplies, including some wells and boreholes, may require additional testing because they can be more directly affected by local contamination.
A water test is the only reliable way to determine whether a particular supply contains PFAS. Testing should be carried out by an accredited laboratory using methods capable of detecting the relevant PFAS at suitably low concentrations. A general “chemical screening” test may not provide a complete picture.
Who may face higher exposure?
Some groups may encounter PFAS more frequently or may be more vulnerable to chemical exposure. These include:
- People living near industrial sites, airports, military bases, landfills or firefighting training grounds
- Individuals using private wells in areas with known or suspected contamination
- Workers in fluorochemical manufacturing, waste management, firefighting and certain textile or metal-plating industries
- People who regularly consume locally caught fish from contaminated waters
- Infants and young children, because of their behaviour and developing bodies
- Communities relying on a single contaminated water source
Occupational exposure can occur through inhalation, skin contact or accidental ingestion of contaminated dust and residues. Employers should provide appropriate risk assessments, protective equipment, hygiene facilities and information about the specific chemicals used at the workplace.
Practical ways to reduce potential exposure
It is impossible to eliminate all contact with PFAS, and consumers should be wary of products promising a completely “PFAS-free” lifestyle without evidence. However, several sensible measures can reduce avoidable exposure:
- Check local drinking water information and follow official advice after a contamination incident.
- If using a private well, arrange periodic testing through an appropriately accredited laboratory.
- Use a water treatment system certified or independently tested for the specific PFAS of concern.
- Replace badly damaged non-stick cookware and avoid overheating coated pans.
- Choose untreated or PFAS-free food packaging where reliable information is available.
- Limit the use of stain-resistant treatments on carpets, furniture and clothing unless they are genuinely needed.
- Wash hands before preparing food and keep household dust under control through regular cleaning.
- Follow local advisories for fish, game, livestock and produce from contaminated areas.
- Ask manufacturers for clear information rather than relying only on broad marketing claims.
Why better information matters
“PFAS” refers to a very large and diverse chemical family. The risks associated with one compound cannot automatically be applied to every other PFAS. Some are well studied, while others have limited toxicological data. This is one reason regulators and scientists increasingly examine PFAS as groups rather than assessing only one chemical at a time.
Research has linked exposure to certain PFAS with effects on the immune system, cholesterol levels, liver function, development and other health outcomes. The strength of evidence varies by chemical and outcome, and scientists continue to investigate long-term effects and safer alternatives.
The most useful response is neither panic nor complacency. It is informed risk management: identify likely sources, monitor water where necessary, apply effective treatment and support policies that prevent persistent chemicals from entering the environment in the first place.
PFAS are present because they were designed to be durable. Protecting drinking water requires the opposite approach: careful monitoring, transparent reporting and technologies that remove contamination before it reaches the tap.
Further reading: Reliable information is available from the UK Drinking Water Inspectorate, the Environment Agency, the UK Health Security Agency, the European Environment Agency and the US Environmental Protection Agency. Always check current national guidance, as PFAS standards and testing requirements continue to develop.